Hunting Snake vs the Cockroach Essay

Discuss the following poems, Hunting Snake and The Cockroach, commenting in particular on the ways in which the poets depict their respective creatures. The poems ‘Hunting Snake’ by Judith Wright and ‘The Cockroach’ by Kevin Halligan are both very metaphorical in their comparisons between creatures and humanity. Both poems are about animals in an undisturbed environment and their subsequent interaction with human beings, and a language feature that is common in both poems is an extended metaphor. The ambiguity of the title in ‘Hunting Snake’ is quite important. It is impossible to differentiate from the title alone whether it is the snake being hunted, or if it is the snake which is doing the hunting. Similarly, the title of â€Å"The Cockroach† gives no further details to the poem apart from the obvious fact that a cockroach will feature prominently. This allows the reader a greater range of interpretation Both poems can be seen as representations of humanity. Judith Wright was born in Australia and held an intense fascination of the countryside and the indigenous Aboriginal people. It is perhaps no coincidence, then, that her poem may hint at aspects of Australian life. The black snake could be seen to represent the Aboriginal people, whilst the people who see this snake may represent the English colonisers who came to inhabit Australia. They both fear and revere the snake – not only do they appreciate its dangerous beauty, but at the same time they treat it as a wild animal. This is a potential metaphor for the racial divide between the Aboriginals and Englishmen which still exists to a limited extent even today. Meanwhile, ‘The Cockroach’ explores human nature – first hinted in the fact that the cockroach is described as being â€Å"giant†. This idea is then developed through personification – the verbs â€Å"trace†, â€Å"jog† and â€Å"circle† are all normally associated with human behaviours. These actions could be a metaphor for the restlessness of human nature. Despite the cockroach being described as â€Å"quite satisfied†, it soon tires of this monotony and chooses to move on and begins to â€Å"jog in crooked rings†. This could represent how we as humans are easily bored of our lives, and instead of being content with what we have we always want more. A cockroach is normally viewed as a repulsive animal – people are normally very eager to kill it if they happen across one in their household.

Letters from Earth Analysis Essay

In Mark Twain’s Letters from Earth after a brief introduction by Twain, the story shifts to the letters written by Satan to his friends in heaven. In the first letter, Satan—who has been banished to Earth for one thousand â€Å"Earth days†Ã¢â‚¬â€ goes on to say that the people, the other animals, the earth itself are all insane. Nature itself is insane. This first letter is a very blunt statement on human arrogance and hypocrisy. He says goes on to explain his declaration over the course of the next ten letters. The second letter explains the curiosity that is heaven as it is perceived on the earth. First and foremost, Satan points out that sexual intercourse is absent in this version of heaven. This is a peculiarity, due to the amount of emphasis placed on it during human life. He wonders why they would leave it out if they enjoy it so much on earth. In fact, people have created a heaven full of things they don’t value. On earth, most men do not sing and/or cannot stand singing, very few people play instruments, people don’t like to pray, people are bored in church, everyone looks down upon everyone else, all â€Å"sane† people detest noise. Keeping that in mind, Satan wonders why then that â€Å"heaven† is full of endless church services where everyone loves everyone else while they all sing and play a musical instrument. In letter three, Christianity is discussed. Satan claims that humans desire to be like (their) God, yet God is nobody to emulate. God punished Adam and Eve when he really had no reason to tempt them in the first place. He also continued to punish the next generations for a crime they did not commit (in regards to the forbidden fruit). People don’t treat their children that way, yet they claim to live in the image of God. He has set rules, yet he himself does not follow them.

Declaration of Independence

Perhaps there is no other man in our history who has stressed the importance of the Declaration of Independence to our society except the former US President Abraham Lincoln. In his Gettysburg Address of 1863 he explained, â€Å"Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. † Thomas Jefferson between June 11 and June 28, 1776 drafted the Declaration of Independence declaring that the union with Great Britain should be dissolved. It was finally adopted on July 4, 1776. After years of colonial rule, the Thirteen Colonies declared that they were independent of the Kingdom of Great Britain. It is considered as a manifestation of our country’s yearning for freedom and our country’s most cherished symbol of liberty. The Declaration of Independence is divided into five parts: a) Introduction; b) Preamble; c) Indictment of George III, d) the Denunciation of the British People and e) the Conclusion. (â€Å"The United States Declaration of Independence†) The Introductory part basically declares that the Laws of Nature have given each and everyone of us the power to assume political independence. What is important however is that the basis for such independence must be reasonable. The Preambles declares that all men are created equal. In view of this equality, the government has no authority to violate the rights and dignity of every man. In case this happens, then revolution for violation of human rights becomes justified. The Indictment enumerates the countless violations and transgressions of human rights committed by the British Government against the Americans. The Denunciation declares that the American people have constantly pleaded for justice and magnanimity of the British government. No action however, was extended. As a result, revolution and declaration of independence is justified. II. The United States Constitution The Articles of Confederation was once the supreme law of the land for the United States Government. It was submitted for ratification on November 17, 1977 and was finally ratified on March 1, 1781. The Articles of Confederation was created during the American Revolutionary War. During those times, the different states were more concerned with the over-concentration of power in the national government and the possible abuse that may result. It is because of this reason that less authority was given to the national government. Further, the Articles of Confederation was considered very weak. Among its weaknesses are: a) the Congress could only request the states to pay taxes instead of levying taxes; b) there was no system of federal courts; c) the powers of the president are weak being limited to presiding over the sessions of Congress; d) there was no system of controlling trade between and among states. (Greg D. Feldmeth, 1998) In view however of the dissatisfaction by the people on some of the provisions of the Articles of Confederation, the Constitutional Convention was created for the purpose of proposing amendments to the Articles of Confederation. The members of the Constitutional Convention prepared the draft of the United States Constitution in Pennsylvania. It was then adopted in 1787 and took effect in 1789. Among the members of the Constitutional Convention who helped in preparing the draft are James Madison, George Washington and Benjamin Franklin. If the Declaration of Independence was written for the purpose of declaring our liberty, the United States Constitution was ratified for the purpose of establishing the government of the United States. It sought to inform the people of the extent of the powers of the government while at the same time limiting these governmental powers. It also sought to establish a formal structure of government by dividing the powers of government into three: the power to make the law; the power to execute the law and the power to interpret the law. These three main powers of government were divided into three branches: a) the executive branch; b) the legislative branch and the judicial branch.

Marketing transportation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Marketing transportation - Essay Example One way that firms can save is through the reduction of plastic bags, as they have a detrimental effect on the environment. One strategy that a firm could use is to encourage recycling among its customers. The benefits would be mutual is this instance because both parties would be helping to contribute. 12. Carrier tariffs and classification go a long way to improving the performance of logistics systems. This is because a packing firm must try to take advantage of equipment’s weight and volume capabilities. Also, there is less chance of products being damaged because of the way the goods are packed in. 18. Of the 10 materials handling principles in this chapter, the two that are the most surprising to me is the ergonomics principle and the environmental principle. For the first one, I would have thought that machines would have been in charge of this process and not human workers. For the second principle, I would have thought that the fast and most efficient systems would be used and not the most environmentally-friendly. 2. The most obvious difference between a fragmented logistics structure and a unified logistics structure is that the former involves logistics being managed across multiple departments, whereas a unified logistics structure only uses one department. One downside to a fragmented logistics structure is that logistics activities are organized by individual departments based on their own needs rather than those of the firm. On the other hand, a unified logistics structure has more cooperation through an organization. 5. Relevancy focuses on satisfying current and future customer needs, and this is done through mutually beneficial relationships. Responsiveness shows how an organization reacts to an unexpected or unplanned change. For this one, it is important that the key players in an organization are given correct information from which to base decisions from. Flexibility is a mix

Colour therapy (chromotherapy) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Colour therapy (chromotherapy) - Essay Example The electromagnetic energy is seen through our eyes. Color therapy is a process that applies color and light that is in the form of tools, verbal suggestions, and tools. All these forms are used to balance energy in different parts of the body that have been seen to lack vibrance whether it is physical, emotional, mental or even spiritual. Each color that is used has got different wavelength and energy (Sue & Simon, 25). The energy of the color affects us on all levels both cognitive and psychomotor. The color is absorbed eyes, the skin or the skull. Since every cell in the body requires light energy, color energy is known to have a widespread effect on the entire body. Color therapy is a non-invasive therapy. One should note color preferences so that it can help in finding possible problems. Working with different colors help in dispelling negative feelings and attitudes, free bocks and also helps to re-balance the body both emotionally and spiritually which translates to physical re-balancing (Vijaya, 24). Color therapy is very safe to use alone or can also be used alongside other types of therapy be it orthodox medicine or any other complementary therapy. Chromotherapy is also safe for both children and adults. The energy that relates to each of the seven colors of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet goes hand in hand with the energy of each of the seven main energy centers of the body (Sue & Simon, 47). The energy centers are also referred to as chakras. Each chakra needs to work smoothly with for one to be healthy. There should be a balance of the energies in each of the chakras to enhance wellbeing of the body. In color therapy, one is given the color he needs more or else the opposite of the color someone has in plenty. If one prefers certain colors, then it means that one uses the color to express himself. For example, one may choose green if he loves nature. Different types of color therapy can

In-Flight Smoking Ban Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

In-Flight Smoking Ban - Essay Example Many companies have recently adapted to the in-flight smoking rule thus causing controversies between the newly introduced smoking law and the human rights laws. The In-flight smoke rule was introduced in the United States in 1989 which has ever since continued to grow worldwide with the adaption of big airline companies such as Virgin Atlantic, British Air and Air France. The adaption of the in-flight smoking law has led to numerous positive results in the flight services. Non-smokers benefit immensely from the in-flight smoking ban as they can travel without the fear of being exposed to tobacco and its effects. In this case, smoking is a condoned in public environments as it affects both the smokers and the non-smokers. Health researchers indicate that non-smokers who are regularly exposed to cigarette smoke in public places carry a much higher chance of developing lung cancer and other smoking diseases compared to the firsthand smokers. Non-smokers are prone to sore eyes, colds an d sore through due to inadequate of fresh air circulation through the aeroplane cabins. An in-flight smoke law has helped in the reduction of these cases thus providing comfort in the air travelling. Flight crews have also benefited from the implementation of the in-flight smoke ban law. a research study commissioned by Aviation Safety Institute in March 1988 proved that smoke from cigarette reduces the level of blood oxygen in flight attendants and pilots which in turn leads to the adverse effect on their judgment. The in-flight smoke law has therefore helped in the reduction of air travel accidents thus making flight travelling to be one of the safest means of transport. Passengers travelling in the aeroplane cabin have benefited from the in-flight smoke law as it helps in the reduction of carbon IV oxide and carbon monoxide accumulation in the chamber that result from poor ventilation, maintenance of the air condition systems as well as filters, poor cleaners and less utility of these devices during flight travels.     

Children's literature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Children's literature - Essay Example During this period, many children books came up for publication, which included the Little House, the Hobbit, among others (Tolkien 1). However, these books received a lot of criticism based on their morality, purpose, themes, and target audience. The Hobbit by John Tolkien is one of the children books published from the period between the Golden Age and the Silver Age--roughly 1920 to 1950 and received numerous criticisms. The Hobbit is a childrens book with a lot of comic, which is popular and recognized in childrens literature. The author published the book inn 1937 in the midst of wide criticism. The novel has attracted international recognition in children literature. The Hobbit has different characters and depicts continued human quest. The Hobbit narrates the story of a simple English man, Bilbo Baggins as he seeks to possess a share of the treasure guarded by the dragon, Smaug (â€Å"The Tolkien Society† 1). The story also depicts human greed and human conflict as all characters disagree at the end of the story. The main themes of the novel include heroism and personal growth while warfare is a dominant motif in the novel that attracts critics over the experiences of the World War I as seen in the novel. There have been variant adaptations of the novel where every adaptation received critical recognition. The novel depicts a glorious, challenging, and entertaining adventure that entails humor and suspense (Eaton 1). The novel uses understandable language and English comics to entertain children. Additionally, the ideals of the Lord of the Rings trilogy (Abramson 1) are part of the novel. Notably, the novel presents a clear view of the authors thoughts about human complexity and human development combined with the ideas of Scandinavian epics he studied as well as a reflection of middle-class life in England as seen in the plot, character, and themes in the novel

Diabetes mellitus type II care and management Term Paper

Diabetes mellitus type II care and management - Term Paper Example All these details are given below, reading which, will provide a clearer insight about the disease to the patients thereby increasing their awareness about it and also how to effectively manage this serious ailment. Unlike the people who suffer from type 1 diabetes, who does not at produce insulin, people with type 2 produce insulin but might not make adequate insulin or the body cannot use it well enough to manage blood sugar levels (called as insulin resistance). When the pancreas does not produce the required levels of insulin to manage the glucose, the resultant increase can enter your body cells leading to host of problems. As far as insulin resistance is concerned, insulin will not be able to play its role properly because the body’s cells remain unaffected by it (â€Å"The importance of monitoring blood-glucose levels,† n. d). Diabetes Type 2 and the resultant high blood sugar can cause series of ailments including heart disease, kidney failure, stroke, diabetic retinopathy affecting eyes, poor blood flow to the legs leading to amputations in certain cases, others. This presents a grave scenario for the patients. At the same time, although, there is no permanent cure for th is type 2 diabetes, it can be managed by eating aptly, exercising, and through medications or insulin therapy. Some patients suffering from type 2 diabetes will be able achieve their target glucose levels through apt diet management and effective exercise alone, however, majority of the sufferers will need oral diabetes medications or injection-based insulin therapy. The best suitable medication would differ from patient to patient because it depends on the individuals’ blood sugar level, their response to the initial treatment, other health problems, and so on, with doctors even prescribing a combination of drugs from different classes. In that direction, doctors are prescribing a combination of metformin and glyburide to help body cope up with high

HR speech and written report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

HR speech and written report - Essay Example The challenge in this case is that if it decides to look for labor offshore, it risks thrashing from the Clothing workers Union (CWU) and the government that has invested a lot of funds into the clothing industry so as to enable the sector offer employment to the local population. According to Czenter (2010), clothing and textile industry is one of the highest employing industries especially for the low skilled labor force in a majority of the countries. Similarly, for OZ as a company that wants to continue being in business must appreciate the role they play in the industry and should, instead of dodging reality, adapt to techniques that will see them make profit while at the same time ensure work tenure for their labor force. The FWA has a core mandate of ensuring the security of workers tenures. In this regard, it will make it its business to indulge in the affairs of OZ clothing so long as they, in any way, try to curtail the working conditions of the workers. OZ clothing faces stiff industrial relations in as far as its case is concerned. With FWA at its neck, it has to work with the labor force it has. It is critical that other strategies other than cutting the services of the labor force must be adopted. It is essential that OZ clothing must become more innovative so that its clothing products meet the competitive threshold in the market so that they can favorably compete with those from other regions like China. Just as (Czenter,2010) notes in her Essay , â€Å"labor market and globalization† that reduction of work force does not mean that customers will cease to demand the same level of output or even the same quality of the product, it thus becomes necessary that OZ restructure to become relevant in the market. This they can do by engaging in value addition strategy. Their clothe lines should appear to have superior to those offered in the market by other players like the

Japanese films that depict the Japanese atomic bomb experience Essay

Japanese films that depict the Japanese atomic bomb experience - Essay Example In Japan, manga artists developed stories with sharp edges because their heroes tackled not only villains but also calamity, anguish and eventually a call for accountability. Although comic book/manga industries had different roles in their societies, post-war cartoonists on both sides spilled a great deal of ink in trying to grasp the promise and perils created by the onset of atomic age. For the Japanese, when the bomb was dropped, it marked the actual onset of the story and the horrors of Hiroshima form the dominant image of the Japanese collective memory of the war, which meant many Japanese considered themselves victims of unwarranted aggression (Szasz and Issei 729). However, the American occupation of Japan between 1945 and 19950 saw the censorship of all references to atomic themes from Japanese writers. Nevertheless, from mid 1950s onward, voices of Japanese politicians, intellectuals, cartoonists and people affected by the bomb gradually began to emerge (Szasz and Issei 730 ). The post-war culture reflected a polarized perspective because the Americans considered it a triumph while the Japanese considered it a tragedy. If the atomic power produced American animals determined to bring about justice, the Japanese writers approached the theme from very distinct perspectives. An example of radiation-powered creature rests in Japanese film Godzilla in 1954. Based on the heated atmosphere with regard to the atomic bomb, came the infamous fictional monster Godzilla where the film begins with the Godzilla attacking a fishing boat. After the monster became exposed to radiation from hydrogen bomb test, the creature emerges as a forty-five-foot monster. Godzilla acts as a powerful allegory regarding the dangers of hydrogen, which depicts their collective memory of the attack and its consequences (Szasz and Issei 744-745). In its initial form, Godzilla was an allegory and not a direct atomic statement and because of the relative silence with regard to the moral is sues involved, Barefoot Gen holds a unique position in the history of the literature (Szasz and Issei 746). The period between 1945 and 1970 witnessed few American or Japanese creative artists raise the question of responsibility for the decision of using the atomic weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This shows that although it was few years since the end of the war, the people’s memories of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were fresh in the minds of Japanese citizens. Barefoot Gen is truly extraordinary within manga, Atomic-bomb related films and atomic anime because of the way it deals with the issue. While other works dealing with the issue focus on lives of survivors in post-war period, Barefoot Gen offers a wide focus because it does not shy from the crucial issues regarding restriction on freedom of thought and freedom of speech in pre-war Japan. Barefoot Gen is one of the main Atomic-bomb related works developed in Japan to address the issue of residents were treated during that period; hence, offering collective memory of the war (Szasz and Issei 749). Despite the gravity of the issue and the tragedies that occurred throughout the tale of Barefoot Gen, the tale is infused with life-affirming joviality, which is not a small part because of the way Gen and other children are portrayed (Szasz and Issei 750). It clear that by living their wits, children amid the post-war confusion were far energetic and resilient compared to the adult

Power and Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Power and Organization - Essay Example â€Å"A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do† (Dahl 1961 p. 202-203). Dahl chose to analyze decision-making on key issues only, and, furthermore, did not state objective criteria for the selection of such â€Å"key issues† (Dahl 1961). He held that he was able to identify subjective interests in the form of dominant policy preferences made visible by patterns of political participation in concrete key issue decision-making. Peter Bachrach & Morton S. Baratz (1962; 1963; 1970) fervently criticized this one-dimensional approach, asking whether a sound concept of power could be predicated on the assumption that it was totally embodied and fully reflected in â€Å"concrete decisions†.  Power is a term, which is defined in different ways by different theorist because power can be used as a means of influence in different ways. Way back, Max Weber has defined power as â€Å"Power is the probability that one a ctor within the relationship will be in the position to carry out his own will despite resistance (Weber, 1947, P.152). Nord has defined power in the context of mobilization of energy and resources to achieve one set of goals as against other sets of Goals. He defines power as follows. â€Å" Power is the ability to influence flows of the available resources towards certain goals as opposed to other goals. Power is assumed to be exercised only when these goals are at least partially in conflict with each other (Nord, 1978, P.675). Robbins has defined power in the more elaborate way when he says† Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B does something he or she would not otherwise do. This definition implies 1) A potential that need not be actualized to be effective 2) A dependence relationship, and 3) That B has some discretion over his or her behavior†.

Association football terminology Essay Example for Free

Association football terminology Essay Soccer also known as football in Europe, It is only known as soccer in the United States and in Canada everywhere else it is known as football. It is a very popular sport and it is played between two teams both with eleven players. Over 250 million players in over 200 countries, making it the world’s most popular sport, played the game. The game is played on a very large rectangular field of grass or it can also be played on artificial turf. There is a goal box in the middle of each of the short ends. The goal of the game is to score by kicking the ball into the opposing goal. Soccer has many nicknames such as â€Å"The beautiful game† and â€Å"The World Game†. The game is played by all ages from children to adults. In general play, the goalies are the only players allowed to touch the ball with their hands while the field players are to use their feet to kick the ball, sometimes using other parts of their legs, their torso, or their head. Players have different roles in the team. There are forwards who attack and score goals. There are defenders who help to defend the goal. The team that scores the most goals by the end of the game wins. If in the end the game were to end in a tie either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout, depending on type of competition. The World Cup is the most famous soccer championship. It is held every four years. Teams from many countries of the world compete with each other, and millions of people around the world watch the game on television at that time. It is a very competitive kind of sports that is why it is interesting to watch it. Soccer is even in the Olympics Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players not including substitutes, one of whom must be the goalkeeper. Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms, provided they do so within the penalty area in front of their own goal. The basic kit players are required to wear includes a shirt, shorts, socks, footwear and also shin guards. Headgear is not a required piece of basic equipment but there are many famous players today may choose to wear it to protect themselves from head injury. A number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game. The maximum number of substitutions permitted in most competitive international and domestic league games is three, though the permitted number may vary in other competitions such as friendly games. Common reasons for a substitution include injury, tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, or substitutions are used for time wasting at the end of a finely poised game. In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match. A match is not allowed to continue if there are fewer than seven players in either team. A game is officiated by a referee who has full authority over the entire match and whose decisions are final. The referee is assisted by two assistant referees. In soccer there can be consequences for hurting a player. And it is known as a foul, a foul occurs when a player commits an offence while the ball is in play. Handling the ball deliberately, tripping an opponent, or pushing an opponent, are considered as fouls. They are therefore punished by a direct free kick or penalty kick depending on where the foul occurred. Other fouls are punishable by an indirect free kick. The referee may punish a player with a caution also known as yellow card or a dismissal also known as a red card. A player can also receive two yellow cards in the same game which result in the player getting a red card, and therefore to a dismissal. A player given a yellow card also it is called being â€Å"booked†, the referee writes down the players name in his official notebook. If a player has been expelled from the game there can be no substitute that can be brought on in their place. You can receive a card at any time during the game. Soccer has fairly simple rules however it is still a difficult game to play. It is a highly strategic game that requires logical thinking, quick reaction and endurance as it is necessary to run without a rest for a long time.

Preventing Piracy and Terrorism in Shipping Industry

Preventing Piracy and Terrorism in Shipping Industry Can the shipping industry overcome the challenges it faces with Piracy and Terrorism? Although many think that pirates went out of circulation with sailed ships and swords, piracy is becoming an increasingly serious global problem. These range from small thefts to complex hijacks, and while taking place globally, tend to be concentrated in a few geographically restricted shipping channels. The breadth and complexity of the piracy problem makes it almost impossible to address in simple terms. The first factor is the enormous scope of the shipping industry. An estimated 90% of world trade moves by sea, in over 50,000ships each supposedly governed by the laws of the nation whose flag it bears (Crawford 2004). There is no one place for information concerning piracy, nor any distinct entity to police the oceans. To further complicate the matter, piracy-type acts are now also committed by terrorists, either for political results or as a way to fund their operations. This research first undertakes a review of available literature on the piracy issue, including types and motives of piracy attacks, ahistorical and current summary of pirate activity, and a consideration of terrorist attacks on shipping concerns. Two particularly volatile areas of pirate activity are then reviewed, the Malacca Straights in Southeast Asia, and the waters off the coast of Nigeria, Africa. Combining best practise findings from the literature reviewed with these case studies then provides a foundation for recommendations on how the piracy issue can best be addressed, by individual shipping concerns, individual countries, and the international community. Countermeasures will be weighed and analysed on the basis of feasibility. Of particular focus in this research is addressing some of the underlying factors contributing to the rise in piracy, in addition to defensive and offensive measures. These are typically overlooked in studies of effective countermeasures to the maritime piracy / terrorist problem. It is anticipated that this research will reveal the need to address this complex issue holistically and internationally, with greater unity and coordination than currently exists in the maritime community. Hypothesis This study considers piracy as a result of other underlying issues, and considers countermeasures from a prevention rather than combative perspective, although all types of piracy countermeasures are addressed. Specifically, it is anticipated piracy will be found to be heavily influenced by economic, political, and ideological factors. Its further anticipated that a truly effective response to the growing piracy problem in international shipping will include measures to combat the causes of increased piracy, in addition to the pirates ’actions. Literature Review Piracy Defined One of the initial difficult factors in a study of piracy is the wide range of definitions. What constitutes piracy, what constitutes robbery, and what constitutes terrorism? National and international organisations disagree on the parameters of piracy, as opposed to thievery or terrorist activity, and all agree the lines between are blurring more and more (Langeweische 2003). The International Maritime Bureau (IMB), an organisation of the International Chamber of Commerce, has some responsibility for piracy and legal considerations on the high seas (that is, areas of the ocean not controlled by a particular country, typically more than twelve miles from the country’s coast)(Hawkes 2001). Therefore, where the attack occurred in relation to the coast is of high importance. This is reinforced by the United Nations ‘Law of the Sea, which has been ratified by almost every nation except the United States (Hawkes 2001). The IMB’s Piracy Reporting Centre in Kuala Lumpur, however, defines piracy as â€Å"any act of boarding an vessel with the intent to commit theft or any other crime and with the intent or capability to use force in the furtherance of that act† ((Liss 2003, 55). While only attacks that take place on the high seas are registered with the PRC, they continue to maintain a broader definition of piracy (Chalk 1998). Forth purpose of this research, attacks against shipping vessels at port, in national waters, and on the high seas will be considered piracy if committed with a primarily economic motive. Acts committed from apolitical or ideological motive will be considered terrorist activities. Most recently, an organisation called the Comate Maritime International (CMI), composed of a number of shipping and law enforcement organisations such as the IMB, The Baltic and International Maritime Council, and Interpol, drafted a Model National Law on Acts of Piracy and Maritime Violence, which expands the definition of piracy to include national waters and the high seas (Hawkes 2001). Types of Piracy Pirate attacks also can be categorised according to the location, scope and violence involved. Non-violent hit-and-run attacks are widespread and often unreported. According to Liss (2003)â€Å"the vast majority of pirate attacks today are simple hit-and-run robberies, committed by what can best be described as common sea-robbers† (59). This attack can occur while the ship is in harbour or at anchorage. The IMB would define these attacks as low-level armed robbery. These are usually quick, low sophistication attacks where thieves make off with cash and portable personal valuables. The average theft in this type of attacks between $5,000 and $15,000 US dollars (Chalk 1998). These pirates are typically groups of men from poor areas who have known each other for quite some time, and steal for economic reasons. Outside of ports, these pirates tend to target smaller vessels (Liss 2003). The men will speak on board a ship, usually at night, and take valuables, electronics, the ship’s equipment, or any other easily transportable and saleable item they can find. These raids often last less than thirty minutes, and rarely have any violence, except in the rare instance when a pirate is confronted by one of the crews (Liss 2003). Violent hit-and-run attacks typically target yachts and other smaller vessels on the open sea. These are typically a heavily-armed group with some planning and training involved. Attacks in territorial waters or on the high seas have a higher level of sophistication, and are categorised as medium-level armed robbery by the IMB (Chalk 1998). In these attacks the pirates board the ship and again take any valuable or saleable items. However, they are unafraid to confront the ship’s occupants or crew, and have injured or killed in a number of cases(Liss 2003). In neither of these two types of attacks is the pirate gang organised or sophisticated enough to also consider stealing the boat (Liss 2003). Ship-seizing attacks require a much higher level of planning and sophistication, including participation in some wider crime network in order to be able to move the ship’s cargo and the ship itself quickly. Not surprisingly, these types of attacks are usually carried out by professional pirates funded by syndicates (Liss 2003). In temporary seizures, the pirates board the ship and restrain the crew; on rare occasions they may also be held for ransom. The ship is diverted to safe location and its cargo off-loaded, after which the ship and crew are released (Liss 2003). Pirates in this type of attack typically work from a â€Å"mother ship,† and may also take portable personal valuables (Chalk 1998). In the most violent and sophisticated attacks, permanent seizures, the ship itself is hijacked at sea, considered a major criminal hijack byte IMB (Chalk 1998). The crew may be abandoned at sea, but in many of these instances they are simply killed. These attacks usually occur in busy narrow shipping channels, and often at night (Langeweische 2003). The ship is typically repainted and its name changed. It then becomes what is called a phantom ship, changing its name and flag regularly(Liss 2003). Permanent seizures occur almost exclusively in the FarEast (Liss 2003). The phantom ship may be used as a pirate ship, but is more often used for a sophisticated type of robbery (Liss 2003). The ship takes on aloud of cargo for a legitimate business, but both the ship and the cargo disappear. The legitimate business loses both its cargo and the shipping fees it invested, and the thieves sell the cargo on the black market, paint the ship and change its name, and repeat the process(Langeweische 2003). A convincing phantom ship can draw in shippers and reroute their cargo quickly, often making up to pounds 30 million a year (Lewis, M. 2004). A Historical Perspective When most people think of piracy, they do so from a historical perspective. Blackbeard, Captain Kidd and their compatriots, swashbuckling, sword-carrying figures aboard tall ships with patches over one eye, supposedly once looted and pillaged the high seas and buried their treasure on deserted islands. In reality, however, piracy has historically been tied to national political and economic concerns. There is evidence that this continues today (Langeweische2003). The â€Å"pirates† in Southeast Asia during the colonisation period, for example, typically undertook slave raiding and robbery activities to strengthen and with the support of their local chiefdoms or sultanates. What the colonising powers considered piracy was seen by locals as state-sponsored means of enriching the local community at foreign powers’ expense (Liss 2003). In the early 1800s, pirates in the Mediterranean were supported by the Barbary States of northern Africa, but primarily for economic gain Loft and Koran 2004). These pirates would typically take over merchant ships and demand ransom for their crews. The United States responded with the Barbary Wars, which eventually successfully addressed the piracy problem with military intervention (Loft and Koran 2004). In various times of economic downturn, particularly when the economic difficulties were localised in areas near popular shipping channels, piracy has historically increased. Piracy experienced a surge with the opening of the Americas, and later Australia (North 1968). On the Atlantic Ocean, these were typically rogue European ships operating for personal profits. However, local residents of Africa, South America, and Asia have also been historically inclined to piracy at various periods. The important historical conclusion from a study of such activity is that piracy rose substantially in and around areas experiencing economic difficulty and which cargo-laden ships passed through, and decreased with economic upturn (North 1968). In recent decades oil shipments have been an increased target of pirates, particularly during periods of high crude prices. For example, tankers were frequently attacked in the Strait of Hormuzduring the mid-1980s (Loft and Koran 2004). As shipments were rerouted and insurers began to pull out from ships in the area, global oil prices were effected. Shipping in the Persian Gulf dropped by almost twenty-five present, and was not restored until the United States intervened, sending military vessels to regain order in the region(Loft and Koran 2004). The decade of the 1990s was also a historical turning point in the piracy saga. Worldwide piracy tripled over the period, escalating from just over one hundred annually in the beginning of the decade to a high of 469 in 2000 (Halloran 2003). Geographically, piracy was high in the early 1990s in the Malacca Straights, but increased policing in the1993 to 1995 period reduced incidences there. The area again fell victim to a high number of attacks in the closing years of the decade(Anon 2005). Piracy also developed from its random, unorganised thievery practise in the late 1800s and much of the 1900s, to sophisticated and highly trained criminal activity, facilitated by the increased number in crime syndicates and terrorist groups becoming involved in piracy activities (Anon 2005b). Many pirates joined â€Å"organized crime syndicates comprising corrupt officials, port workers, hired thugs, and businessmen,† developing into sophisticated networks that could gain intelligence on particular ships, plan attacks, and dispose of the stolen property or ships (Loft and Koran 2004, 68). The problem was compounded by the gross underpayment of maritime security in high piracy (and typically economically depressed) areas throughout the 1990s, who become more susceptible to bribes and in some cases even took part in piracy attacks (Loft and Koran 2004). Piracy Today Piracy today is a global disaster. Statistics on piracy do not accurately paint the current picture. As many as half of attacks are estimated to go unreported (Anon 2005b). Ship owners are reluctant to detain their ships to participate in an investigation, as doing so costs them significant loss. Incidents of piracy can also make it more difficult for them to recruit high-quality crew members (Clark 2004). Reporting piracy would also cause an increase in their insurance premiums, often costing more in the long-term than simply absorbing the loss (Armstrong 2004). â€Å"Since many shipping companies do not report incidents of piracy, for fear of raising their insurance premiums and prompting protracted, time-consuming investigations, the precise extent of piracy is unknown â€Å" (Loft and Koran 2004, 64). Various international and shipping organisations make the attempt, however, and can at least document trends in piracy events that are reported. Both attacks and their violence are reported to be on theorise. International Maritime Bureau, in its annual piracy report, recorded 325 piracy attacks and thirty deaths in 2004, a decrease in attacks (from 445) but increase in deaths (from 21) in 2003 (Anon2005b). â€Å"The number of seafarers taken hostage last year almost doubled to 359, while 311 ships were boarded and 19 vessels hijacked†(Akbar 2004, 27). Armstrong (2004) similarly lists piracy as growing at twenty present annually. Armed attacks increased by nearly fifty present in 2003, with the death count more than doubled from 2002(Akbar 2004). 644 incidents of violence to crews were reported overall, including six on UK-flagged ships and twenty-one on vessels owned or managed from the UK (Akbar 2004). These attacks tend to be clustered in and near some of the busiest Third World ports, particularly off the shores of Indonesia, Malaysia and Nigeria(Mihailescu 2004, Halloran 2003). In two incidents receiving high media coverage in the UK, pirates executed Sir Peter Blake, the Greenpeace activist, off the coast of Brazil in 2002. Alan MacLean was similarly killed by pirates off the coast of Somalia during an adventure-related trip (Akbar 2004). The financial impacts are huge. Loft and Koran (2004) report a loss of ships, loss of cargo, and increased insurance costs the shipping industry in excess of sixteen billion US each year. This trainslates to a weekly cost of pounds 300m per week (Akbar 2004, Reynolds 2003). As much as 10 billion US of this loss is to the insurance industry alone, with the true amount being significantl y higher due to underreporting (Crawford 2004). Pirates today are additionally too broad a group to truly generalise. However, technological advances have allowed pirates to become better equipped and have greater information as to their targets, which contributes to an increased number of attacks on larger ships (Lewis. 2004). In addition, the end of the Cold War has reduced the number of sea patrols in certain areas of the world while simultaneously making a tremendous volume of weapons and munitions available on the black market, often at relatively inexpensive prices (Armstrong 2004). Meanwhile, exponential in global trade has greatly increased the amount of highly valuable and saleable goods moving across the seas. This combination of more to steal, less policing, and greater easy in theft has led to a significant rise in piracy activity (Liss 2003). Attempts to regulate shipping have led to the development of the flags of convenience problem. The practice began after World War II, but did not become widespread or a problem in the international maritime community until the 1990s (Langewiesche 2004). A number of impoverished countries, such as Malta, Panama, and Liberia, began to sell their flags for a fee, with little concern for the legitimacy of the ship’s owners (Loft and Koran 2004). This allowed ship owners to literally choose under which country’s laws they wanted to sail their ship, regardless of their home port of call (Liss 2003). Today, according to Langewiesche (2004), â€Å"no one pretends that a ship comes from the home port painted on its stern† (50). This has greatly facilitated the operation of phantom ships, previously described. The massive Tsunami that devastated much of the South Asian coast in December 2004 has had a particular impact on piracy. It is believed many pirate syndicates and individual pirate groups lost ships in the disaster, as did many legitimate ship owners. In addition, changes to the Malacca Straights have reduced shipping in the region and left piracy there almost non-existent (Bangs erg 2005). It will be of note to see if piracy rebounds as issues with passage through the Straights are resolved, or whether piracy increases in some other area or areas. Terrorism: The New Threat On top of all the above, groups operating from a political motive, terrorists, have entered the piracy trade. Following September 11,terrorism has become a worldwide concern. The maritime community had already experienced a number of terrorist actions and threats, such as when Islamic militants bombed the side of the Cole, an American warship, in 2000 (Anon 2004). Since 9/11, the Limburg, a French oil tanker, has been similarly bombed, while â€Å"Abu Soya, a terrorist outfit from the southern Philippines, claimed responsibility for bombing a ferry in Manila Bay earlier this year† (Anon 2004). While most countries can provide at least reasonable protection for land targets, â€Å"the super-extended energy umbilical cord that extends by sea to connect the West and the Asian economies with the Middle East is more vulnerable than ever† (Loft and Koran 2004, 64). Ninety perceptive the world’s trade is transported via ship, with 4,000 slow and difficult to defend tanker ships moving sixty present of the world oil supply. These ships have little or no protection, and are frequently alone on open water with nowhere to hide (Loft and Koran 2004). Current International Maritime Organization regulations prevent firearms on vessels, even for self-protection, leaving ships’ crews to face terrorist and pirate threats with spotlights and high-powered firehouses (Mihailescu 2004). Interestingly, Russian and Israeli ships ignore the IMO regulations, allowing their crewmembers to be armed, and subsequently have a lower incident of successfully attacks from either pirates or terrorists (Loft and Koran 2004). As Armstrong (2004) contends, â€Å"the world economy relies on the seamless delivery of trade via the worlds seaways† (7). This gives the terrorist threat immediate international implications. The international community has attempted to address terrorist concerns with acts such as the International Ship and Port Security Code, implemented in July 2004, the Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism, and the Container Safety Initiative. However, the terrorist threat remains â€Å"a function of the terrorists will, the terrorist’s capability, and the targets perceived importance† (Armstrong 2004). Terrorists are separated from pirates by motive. While pirates attack for purely economic reasons, terrorist groups strike for political or ideological reasons, sometimes with economic considerations an additional cause (Anon 2005). â€Å"Unlike the pirates of old, whose sole objective was quick commercial gain, many of todays pirates are maritime terrorists with an ideological bent and a broad political agenda† (Loft and Koran 2004). There is, of course, a connection. Terrorists sometimes act as pirates, usually to finance their political or ideological activities. â€Å"Pirates claiming to be members of the Free Aceh Movement, who take ships crews hostage for ransom, have started to blur the lines between terror and piracy† (Hand 2004, 5). They show no interest in the ship or its cargo, but simultaneously achieve economic gains while embarrassing the government they oppose (Hand2005). In addition, as pirates become more sophisticated, they may be through their very success revealing to the terrorists where opportunities for successful destruction exist (Anon 2005). â€Å"Terrorism is imitative and adaptive, learning from other groups and wider trends† (Armstrong 2004,7). In addition, â€Å"the apparent lack of concrete evidence linking pirates and terrorism has not stopped senior Singapore government officials from publicly making this link on a number of occasions†(Hand 2004, 5). One possible terrorist target is blocking a major shipping lane. Six major shipping channels geographically lend themselves to such an attack (Armstrong 2004). The Malacca Straights are considered the most vulnerable, as the area suffers from lack of funds for policing by its littoral nations yet carries as much as one-third of the world’s total trade and one-half of the world’s oil supply (Anon 2005). â€Å"One ship sunk in a strategic right spot has the potential to block much of the Straight and cripple world trade† (Anon 2004, 37). Fourteen present of world trade moves through the Suez Canal, with the Panama Canal, thebe-el-Man dab, and the Strait of Gibraltar also carrying significant percentages of world trade. All are narrow, busy channels where well-planned terrorist strike could partially or completely block passage (Armstrong 2004). The Strait of Hormuz, connecting the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, is only two kilometres at its most narrow point, yet accounts for over fifteen million barrels of oil transport daily(Loft and Koran 2004). One well-placed scuttle could physically block these channels, crippling trade, as could refusal of insurance carriers to cover vessels in the area, if the terrorist situation became too severe(Armstrong 2004). Either would have devastating global economic impact. Oil and raw materials would be blocked, soon crippling manufacturing and transportation industries. Targeting energy infrastructure is increasingly recognised as terrorist intention. â€Å"Indecent years, terrorists have targeted pipelines, refineries, pumping stations, and tankers in some of the worlds most important energy reservoirs, including Iraq, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen† (Loft 2004). â€Å"Given al-Qaedas understanding of the sensitivity of Western economies to the price of oil, the oil and gas industry represents particularly tempting target, where a single terrorist incident could have a huge ripple effect† (Armstrong 2004). The damage would be heightened by today’s just-in-time logistics systems. Companies reduced inventories and capital structures, made possible by international outsourcing and trade, would cause an almost immediate shortage of some goods (Armstrong 2004). This would be compounded if multiple attacks were to occur on vulnerable shipping conduits simultaneously. Terrorists could also hijack ships and make them into floating bombs, which in addition to closing a shipping lane could be deployed against ports, oil refineries, or other critical infrastructures (Anon 2004). Last year in Singapore, supposed pirates hijacked a chemical tanker in the Malacca Straights, and then abandoned the ship after only an hour, fuelling speculation that terrorists were practising for a just such an attack (Anon 2004). This could cause severe damage, also with global impact in the case of a major port of oil refinery, in addition to having a potential devastating environmental impact on the targeted area. The threats â€Å"posed by the environmental impact of a deliberate tanker spill or a gas or chemical tanker being used as a floating bombard sobering yet very real scenarios (Crawford 2004, 9). Case Study: The Malacca Straights The Malacca Straights will be considered in this case study in inspire-December 26, 2004 condition. The channel was devastated by the earthquake and Tsunamis in the region. Several thousand navigational aids have shifted out of position, and at least two deep areas of the channel have filled in dramatically, with one previously over 1,000metres deep now only thirty metres (Bangs erg 2005). Old wrecks were also shifted and joined by ships downed by the waves, which will all need to be charged, and possibly moved or salvaged. London’s International Maritime Organisation is partnering with the United States to re-chart the area and plan for any needed channel modifications, with complete re-charting and dredging where necessary expected to last at least a year (Bangs erg 2005). The Malacca Strait is to the south and west of Singapore and Malaysia, north of Indonesia. It is a narrow channel, approximately 900kilometres long; at one point it narrows to less than two kilometres wide. (Anon 2005, Anon 2004). Over twenty-five present of total world trade, half of the global oil transport, and nearly two-thirds of the international supply of liquefied natural gas pass through the Straight(Loft and Koran 2004). Last year the Straight recorded over 62,000passages, including 3,300 crude oil tankers and 3,280 natural gas carriers (Hand 2004). Other freighters carry a variety of deadly substances, such as nuclear waste from Japan headed for European reprocessing facilities. The majority of the raw materials for China’s extensive manufacturing activities and products for its growing economy move through the Straight (Loft and Koran 2004). According to the IMB, the Strait of Malacca is the most dangerous shipping passage in the world (Hand 2004). The Strait is â€Å"almost entirely made up of territorial waters belonging to the three littoral states† (Hand 2004). This has been a historical point of collapse in addressing piracy in the region, as only recently have these three countries been able to coordinate activities to address shipping safety. In addition, while Malaysia and Singapore are better of financially than Indonesia, none of the countries has the full range of resources needed to confront the problem (Anon 2004). The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has been unable to promote cooperation and a common strategy to deal with piracy in the area, and Indonesia and Malaysia have strongly rejected offers from the United States to dispatch the US Navy to patrol the area (Halloran 2003, Anon2004, Lewis, L. 2004). Of the three countries, Indonesia has done the least to fight piracy. However, it is not surprising that in such an economically disadvantaged country piracy is far down on its list of priorities. â€Å"The vast majority of shipping it is being asked to protect provides noneconomic benefit for the country† (Hand 2004, 5). In addition, Indonesia has faced significant political turmoil. The simultaneous political and economic crises have left the country unable to address piracy adequately, even if it wanted to (Armstrong 2004). The Indonesian Navy was dispatched to combat piracy near Singapore at that country’s insistence, but in the long-term â€Å"Indonesia lacks both the resources and the political will to maintain security across the entire length of the strait; it is a poor country with deep economic and political problems† (Hand 2004). The Indonesian navy is nearly bankrupt and has, at best estimate, perhaps twenty seaworthy boats appropriate for use on patrol. With these resources they attempt to guard the waters surrounding nearly 17,000 islands (Anon 2004). Singapore and Indonesia attempted to work bilaterally on the problem in the 1990s, but coordination disintegrated (Chalk 1998). Malaysia has been more aggressive in addressing piracy. Pre-Tsunami, the government even planned to enhance security with a24-hour radar system covering its areas in the Straight (Anon 2005a). The IMB credits Malaysian vigilant policing and anti-piracy activities as directly leading to the drop in piracy at the western end of the Straight. In 2000, seventy-five attacks were reported in that area, but by 2002 the number had dropped to sixteen (Halloran 2003). Unfortunately this number was tempered by increased attacks in the eastern areas of the Straight, such as the area above the impoverished Indonesian Port Clang, where the sea lanes initially widen (Anon 2004). Following this success, Singapore joined with Malaysia to launch anoint offensive. Seventeen ships were dispatched by the two countries to hunt pirates and terrorists in the Malacca Straight. The countries-ordinated patrols, allowing suspect ships to be pursued across national sea boundaries (Lewis, L. 2004). This led to a further decrease in pirate activity throughout the Straight. However the Indonesian waters of the Straight continue to report the highest number of pirate attacks globally, although the number has dropped from 121 in 2003 to 93 in 2004 (Anon 2005b). Thesis more than twenty-five present of pirate activity worldwide (Anon2005b). Indonesians had recently joined with Malaysia and Singapore,pre-Tsunami, to address piracy. The countries have agreed to allow each other’s policing and patrol ships to pursue suspected pirates and terrorists into each other’s waters (Lewis, L. 2004). While each country remains responsible for its own section of the Straight, any reported pirate or terrorist activity will be immediately reported to cooperating the other countries, allowing for multi-national response where needed (Lewis, L. 2004). Armstrong (2004) points out that increases in piracy typically follow economic crises, and â€Å"flourish in a political / security vacuum†(7). â€Å"The growth in incidents in the Malacca Strait, for example, follows the Asian economic crisis of the late 1990s† (Armstrong 2004,7). Ideologically, the Muslim religion remains prominent in the region. This has encouraged Muslim extremists to establish bases near the Straight, from which they attack ships for political or economic gain (Kokand 2004). The recent natural disasters in the region have only intensified economic and political problems. It is therefore unlikely that the Straight will remain pirate-free once the Tsunami effects on the shipping lanes are dealt with, unless the economic and political instabilities of the region, particularly in Indonesia, are addressed. Case Study: Nigeria The high seas and territorial waters off the coast of Nigeria are another hotbed of pirate and terrorist activity. The country is on the western coast of Africa, bordered to the north and west by Benin and Cameroon, and to the south by the Gulf of Guinea (Nigeria 2005). The river Niger flows through Nigeria to its delta in the gulf. The county is Africa’s most populous, but the vast majority of Nigerians live at below-poverty levels, surviving through subsistence farming (Anon2004b). Petroleum and petroleum products account for ninety-five present of the nation’s exports, making departing tankers a prime target for pirates and terrorist groups (Nigeria 2005). The Nigerian government has been going through massive changes. Constitution was enacted in 1999 following sixteen years of corrupt and poorly managed military rule (Nigeria 2005). Agricultural productivity has plummeted, causing what was once one of Africa’s leading agricultural producers to import food supplies. The economy has been allowed to become over-reliant on petroleum, without the creation of diverse economic interests or investment in infrastructure (Nigeria2005). Nigeria is home to over 250 ethnic people groups, leading to religious and ethnic dissention within the country (Nigeria 2005). While not having as high an incidence of strikes as the Malacca Straight, attacks in the region are significantly more violent (Clark2004). In the first half of 2004, Nigeria had thirteen attacks, compared with fif Preventing Piracy and Terrorism in Shipping Industry Preventing Piracy and Terrorism in Shipping Industry Can the shipping industry overcome the challenges it faces with Piracy and Terrorism? Although many think that pirates went out of circulation with sailed ships and swords, piracy is becoming an increasingly serious global problem. These range from small thefts to complex hijacks, and while taking place globally, tend to be concentrated in a few geographically restricted shipping channels. The breadth and complexity of the piracy problem makes it almost impossible to address in simple terms. The first factor is the enormous scope of the shipping industry. An estimated 90% of world trade moves by sea, in over 50,000ships each supposedly governed by the laws of the nation whose flag it bears (Crawford 2004). There is no one place for information concerning piracy, nor any distinct entity to police the oceans. To further complicate the matter, piracy-type acts are now also committed by terrorists, either for political results or as a way to fund their operations. This research first undertakes a review of available literature on the piracy issue, including types and motives of piracy attacks, ahistorical and current summary of pirate activity, and a consideration of terrorist attacks on shipping concerns. Two particularly volatile areas of pirate activity are then reviewed, the Malacca Straights in Southeast Asia, and the waters off the coast of Nigeria, Africa. Combining best practise findings from the literature reviewed with these case studies then provides a foundation for recommendations on how the piracy issue can best be addressed, by individual shipping concerns, individual countries, and the international community. Countermeasures will be weighed and analysed on the basis of feasibility. Of particular focus in this research is addressing some of the underlying factors contributing to the rise in piracy, in addition to defensive and offensive measures. These are typically overlooked in studies of effective countermeasures to the maritime piracy / terrorist problem. It is anticipated that this research will reveal the need to address this complex issue holistically and internationally, with greater unity and coordination than currently exists in the maritime community. Hypothesis This study considers piracy as a result of other underlying issues, and considers countermeasures from a prevention rather than combative perspective, although all types of piracy countermeasures are addressed. Specifically, it is anticipated piracy will be found to be heavily influenced by economic, political, and ideological factors. Its further anticipated that a truly effective response to the growing piracy problem in international shipping will include measures to combat the causes of increased piracy, in addition to the pirates ’actions. Literature Review Piracy Defined One of the initial difficult factors in a study of piracy is the wide range of definitions. What constitutes piracy, what constitutes robbery, and what constitutes terrorism? National and international organisations disagree on the parameters of piracy, as opposed to thievery or terrorist activity, and all agree the lines between are blurring more and more (Langeweische 2003). The International Maritime Bureau (IMB), an organisation of the International Chamber of Commerce, has some responsibility for piracy and legal considerations on the high seas (that is, areas of the ocean not controlled by a particular country, typically more than twelve miles from the country’s coast)(Hawkes 2001). Therefore, where the attack occurred in relation to the coast is of high importance. This is reinforced by the United Nations ‘Law of the Sea, which has been ratified by almost every nation except the United States (Hawkes 2001). The IMB’s Piracy Reporting Centre in Kuala Lumpur, however, defines piracy as â€Å"any act of boarding an vessel with the intent to commit theft or any other crime and with the intent or capability to use force in the furtherance of that act† ((Liss 2003, 55). While only attacks that take place on the high seas are registered with the PRC, they continue to maintain a broader definition of piracy (Chalk 1998). Forth purpose of this research, attacks against shipping vessels at port, in national waters, and on the high seas will be considered piracy if committed with a primarily economic motive. Acts committed from apolitical or ideological motive will be considered terrorist activities. Most recently, an organisation called the Comate Maritime International (CMI), composed of a number of shipping and law enforcement organisations such as the IMB, The Baltic and International Maritime Council, and Interpol, drafted a Model National Law on Acts of Piracy and Maritime Violence, which expands the definition of piracy to include national waters and the high seas (Hawkes 2001). Types of Piracy Pirate attacks also can be categorised according to the location, scope and violence involved. Non-violent hit-and-run attacks are widespread and often unreported. According to Liss (2003)â€Å"the vast majority of pirate attacks today are simple hit-and-run robberies, committed by what can best be described as common sea-robbers† (59). This attack can occur while the ship is in harbour or at anchorage. The IMB would define these attacks as low-level armed robbery. These are usually quick, low sophistication attacks where thieves make off with cash and portable personal valuables. The average theft in this type of attacks between $5,000 and $15,000 US dollars (Chalk 1998). These pirates are typically groups of men from poor areas who have known each other for quite some time, and steal for economic reasons. Outside of ports, these pirates tend to target smaller vessels (Liss 2003). The men will speak on board a ship, usually at night, and take valuables, electronics, the ship’s equipment, or any other easily transportable and saleable item they can find. These raids often last less than thirty minutes, and rarely have any violence, except in the rare instance when a pirate is confronted by one of the crews (Liss 2003). Violent hit-and-run attacks typically target yachts and other smaller vessels on the open sea. These are typically a heavily-armed group with some planning and training involved. Attacks in territorial waters or on the high seas have a higher level of sophistication, and are categorised as medium-level armed robbery by the IMB (Chalk 1998). In these attacks the pirates board the ship and again take any valuable or saleable items. However, they are unafraid to confront the ship’s occupants or crew, and have injured or killed in a number of cases(Liss 2003). In neither of these two types of attacks is the pirate gang organised or sophisticated enough to also consider stealing the boat (Liss 2003). Ship-seizing attacks require a much higher level of planning and sophistication, including participation in some wider crime network in order to be able to move the ship’s cargo and the ship itself quickly. Not surprisingly, these types of attacks are usually carried out by professional pirates funded by syndicates (Liss 2003). In temporary seizures, the pirates board the ship and restrain the crew; on rare occasions they may also be held for ransom. The ship is diverted to safe location and its cargo off-loaded, after which the ship and crew are released (Liss 2003). Pirates in this type of attack typically work from a â€Å"mother ship,† and may also take portable personal valuables (Chalk 1998). In the most violent and sophisticated attacks, permanent seizures, the ship itself is hijacked at sea, considered a major criminal hijack byte IMB (Chalk 1998). The crew may be abandoned at sea, but in many of these instances they are simply killed. These attacks usually occur in busy narrow shipping channels, and often at night (Langeweische 2003). The ship is typically repainted and its name changed. It then becomes what is called a phantom ship, changing its name and flag regularly(Liss 2003). Permanent seizures occur almost exclusively in the FarEast (Liss 2003). The phantom ship may be used as a pirate ship, but is more often used for a sophisticated type of robbery (Liss 2003). The ship takes on aloud of cargo for a legitimate business, but both the ship and the cargo disappear. The legitimate business loses both its cargo and the shipping fees it invested, and the thieves sell the cargo on the black market, paint the ship and change its name, and repeat the process(Langeweische 2003). A convincing phantom ship can draw in shippers and reroute their cargo quickly, often making up to pounds 30 million a year (Lewis, M. 2004). A Historical Perspective When most people think of piracy, they do so from a historical perspective. Blackbeard, Captain Kidd and their compatriots, swashbuckling, sword-carrying figures aboard tall ships with patches over one eye, supposedly once looted and pillaged the high seas and buried their treasure on deserted islands. In reality, however, piracy has historically been tied to national political and economic concerns. There is evidence that this continues today (Langeweische2003). The â€Å"pirates† in Southeast Asia during the colonisation period, for example, typically undertook slave raiding and robbery activities to strengthen and with the support of their local chiefdoms or sultanates. What the colonising powers considered piracy was seen by locals as state-sponsored means of enriching the local community at foreign powers’ expense (Liss 2003). In the early 1800s, pirates in the Mediterranean were supported by the Barbary States of northern Africa, but primarily for economic gain Loft and Koran 2004). These pirates would typically take over merchant ships and demand ransom for their crews. The United States responded with the Barbary Wars, which eventually successfully addressed the piracy problem with military intervention (Loft and Koran 2004). In various times of economic downturn, particularly when the economic difficulties were localised in areas near popular shipping channels, piracy has historically increased. Piracy experienced a surge with the opening of the Americas, and later Australia (North 1968). On the Atlantic Ocean, these were typically rogue European ships operating for personal profits. However, local residents of Africa, South America, and Asia have also been historically inclined to piracy at various periods. The important historical conclusion from a study of such activity is that piracy rose substantially in and around areas experiencing economic difficulty and which cargo-laden ships passed through, and decreased with economic upturn (North 1968). In recent decades oil shipments have been an increased target of pirates, particularly during periods of high crude prices. For example, tankers were frequently attacked in the Strait of Hormuzduring the mid-1980s (Loft and Koran 2004). As shipments were rerouted and insurers began to pull out from ships in the area, global oil prices were effected. Shipping in the Persian Gulf dropped by almost twenty-five present, and was not restored until the United States intervened, sending military vessels to regain order in the region(Loft and Koran 2004). The decade of the 1990s was also a historical turning point in the piracy saga. Worldwide piracy tripled over the period, escalating from just over one hundred annually in the beginning of the decade to a high of 469 in 2000 (Halloran 2003). Geographically, piracy was high in the early 1990s in the Malacca Straights, but increased policing in the1993 to 1995 period reduced incidences there. The area again fell victim to a high number of attacks in the closing years of the decade(Anon 2005). Piracy also developed from its random, unorganised thievery practise in the late 1800s and much of the 1900s, to sophisticated and highly trained criminal activity, facilitated by the increased number in crime syndicates and terrorist groups becoming involved in piracy activities (Anon 2005b). Many pirates joined â€Å"organized crime syndicates comprising corrupt officials, port workers, hired thugs, and businessmen,† developing into sophisticated networks that could gain intelligence on particular ships, plan attacks, and dispose of the stolen property or ships (Loft and Koran 2004, 68). The problem was compounded by the gross underpayment of maritime security in high piracy (and typically economically depressed) areas throughout the 1990s, who become more susceptible to bribes and in some cases even took part in piracy attacks (Loft and Koran 2004). Piracy Today Piracy today is a global disaster. Statistics on piracy do not accurately paint the current picture. As many as half of attacks are estimated to go unreported (Anon 2005b). Ship owners are reluctant to detain their ships to participate in an investigation, as doing so costs them significant loss. Incidents of piracy can also make it more difficult for them to recruit high-quality crew members (Clark 2004). Reporting piracy would also cause an increase in their insurance premiums, often costing more in the long-term than simply absorbing the loss (Armstrong 2004). â€Å"Since many shipping companies do not report incidents of piracy, for fear of raising their insurance premiums and prompting protracted, time-consuming investigations, the precise extent of piracy is unknown â€Å" (Loft and Koran 2004, 64). Various international and shipping organisations make the attempt, however, and can at least document trends in piracy events that are reported. Both attacks and their violence are reported to be on theorise. International Maritime Bureau, in its annual piracy report, recorded 325 piracy attacks and thirty deaths in 2004, a decrease in attacks (from 445) but increase in deaths (from 21) in 2003 (Anon2005b). â€Å"The number of seafarers taken hostage last year almost doubled to 359, while 311 ships were boarded and 19 vessels hijacked†(Akbar 2004, 27). Armstrong (2004) similarly lists piracy as growing at twenty present annually. Armed attacks increased by nearly fifty present in 2003, with the death count more than doubled from 2002(Akbar 2004). 644 incidents of violence to crews were reported overall, including six on UK-flagged ships and twenty-one on vessels owned or managed from the UK (Akbar 2004). These attacks tend to be clustered in and near some of the busiest Third World ports, particularly off the shores of Indonesia, Malaysia and Nigeria(Mihailescu 2004, Halloran 2003). In two incidents receiving high media coverage in the UK, pirates executed Sir Peter Blake, the Greenpeace activist, off the coast of Brazil in 2002. Alan MacLean was similarly killed by pirates off the coast of Somalia during an adventure-related trip (Akbar 2004). The financial impacts are huge. Loft and Koran (2004) report a loss of ships, loss of cargo, and increased insurance costs the shipping industry in excess of sixteen billion US each year. This trainslates to a weekly cost of pounds 300m per week (Akbar 2004, Reynolds 2003). As much as 10 billion US of this loss is to the insurance industry alone, with the true amount being significantl y higher due to underreporting (Crawford 2004). Pirates today are additionally too broad a group to truly generalise. However, technological advances have allowed pirates to become better equipped and have greater information as to their targets, which contributes to an increased number of attacks on larger ships (Lewis. 2004). In addition, the end of the Cold War has reduced the number of sea patrols in certain areas of the world while simultaneously making a tremendous volume of weapons and munitions available on the black market, often at relatively inexpensive prices (Armstrong 2004). Meanwhile, exponential in global trade has greatly increased the amount of highly valuable and saleable goods moving across the seas. This combination of more to steal, less policing, and greater easy in theft has led to a significant rise in piracy activity (Liss 2003). Attempts to regulate shipping have led to the development of the flags of convenience problem. The practice began after World War II, but did not become widespread or a problem in the international maritime community until the 1990s (Langewiesche 2004). A number of impoverished countries, such as Malta, Panama, and Liberia, began to sell their flags for a fee, with little concern for the legitimacy of the ship’s owners (Loft and Koran 2004). This allowed ship owners to literally choose under which country’s laws they wanted to sail their ship, regardless of their home port of call (Liss 2003). Today, according to Langewiesche (2004), â€Å"no one pretends that a ship comes from the home port painted on its stern† (50). This has greatly facilitated the operation of phantom ships, previously described. The massive Tsunami that devastated much of the South Asian coast in December 2004 has had a particular impact on piracy. It is believed many pirate syndicates and individual pirate groups lost ships in the disaster, as did many legitimate ship owners. In addition, changes to the Malacca Straights have reduced shipping in the region and left piracy there almost non-existent (Bangs erg 2005). It will be of note to see if piracy rebounds as issues with passage through the Straights are resolved, or whether piracy increases in some other area or areas. Terrorism: The New Threat On top of all the above, groups operating from a political motive, terrorists, have entered the piracy trade. Following September 11,terrorism has become a worldwide concern. The maritime community had already experienced a number of terrorist actions and threats, such as when Islamic militants bombed the side of the Cole, an American warship, in 2000 (Anon 2004). Since 9/11, the Limburg, a French oil tanker, has been similarly bombed, while â€Å"Abu Soya, a terrorist outfit from the southern Philippines, claimed responsibility for bombing a ferry in Manila Bay earlier this year† (Anon 2004). While most countries can provide at least reasonable protection for land targets, â€Å"the super-extended energy umbilical cord that extends by sea to connect the West and the Asian economies with the Middle East is more vulnerable than ever† (Loft and Koran 2004, 64). Ninety perceptive the world’s trade is transported via ship, with 4,000 slow and difficult to defend tanker ships moving sixty present of the world oil supply. These ships have little or no protection, and are frequently alone on open water with nowhere to hide (Loft and Koran 2004). Current International Maritime Organization regulations prevent firearms on vessels, even for self-protection, leaving ships’ crews to face terrorist and pirate threats with spotlights and high-powered firehouses (Mihailescu 2004). Interestingly, Russian and Israeli ships ignore the IMO regulations, allowing their crewmembers to be armed, and subsequently have a lower incident of successfully attacks from either pirates or terrorists (Loft and Koran 2004). As Armstrong (2004) contends, â€Å"the world economy relies on the seamless delivery of trade via the worlds seaways† (7). This gives the terrorist threat immediate international implications. The international community has attempted to address terrorist concerns with acts such as the International Ship and Port Security Code, implemented in July 2004, the Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism, and the Container Safety Initiative. However, the terrorist threat remains â€Å"a function of the terrorists will, the terrorist’s capability, and the targets perceived importance† (Armstrong 2004). Terrorists are separated from pirates by motive. While pirates attack for purely economic reasons, terrorist groups strike for political or ideological reasons, sometimes with economic considerations an additional cause (Anon 2005). â€Å"Unlike the pirates of old, whose sole objective was quick commercial gain, many of todays pirates are maritime terrorists with an ideological bent and a broad political agenda† (Loft and Koran 2004). There is, of course, a connection. Terrorists sometimes act as pirates, usually to finance their political or ideological activities. â€Å"Pirates claiming to be members of the Free Aceh Movement, who take ships crews hostage for ransom, have started to blur the lines between terror and piracy† (Hand 2004, 5). They show no interest in the ship or its cargo, but simultaneously achieve economic gains while embarrassing the government they oppose (Hand2005). In addition, as pirates become more sophisticated, they may be through their very success revealing to the terrorists where opportunities for successful destruction exist (Anon 2005). â€Å"Terrorism is imitative and adaptive, learning from other groups and wider trends† (Armstrong 2004,7). In addition, â€Å"the apparent lack of concrete evidence linking pirates and terrorism has not stopped senior Singapore government officials from publicly making this link on a number of occasions†(Hand 2004, 5). One possible terrorist target is blocking a major shipping lane. Six major shipping channels geographically lend themselves to such an attack (Armstrong 2004). The Malacca Straights are considered the most vulnerable, as the area suffers from lack of funds for policing by its littoral nations yet carries as much as one-third of the world’s total trade and one-half of the world’s oil supply (Anon 2005). â€Å"One ship sunk in a strategic right spot has the potential to block much of the Straight and cripple world trade† (Anon 2004, 37). Fourteen present of world trade moves through the Suez Canal, with the Panama Canal, thebe-el-Man dab, and the Strait of Gibraltar also carrying significant percentages of world trade. All are narrow, busy channels where well-planned terrorist strike could partially or completely block passage (Armstrong 2004). The Strait of Hormuz, connecting the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, is only two kilometres at its most narrow point, yet accounts for over fifteen million barrels of oil transport daily(Loft and Koran 2004). One well-placed scuttle could physically block these channels, crippling trade, as could refusal of insurance carriers to cover vessels in the area, if the terrorist situation became too severe(Armstrong 2004). Either would have devastating global economic impact. Oil and raw materials would be blocked, soon crippling manufacturing and transportation industries. Targeting energy infrastructure is increasingly recognised as terrorist intention. â€Å"Indecent years, terrorists have targeted pipelines, refineries, pumping stations, and tankers in some of the worlds most important energy reservoirs, including Iraq, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen† (Loft 2004). â€Å"Given al-Qaedas understanding of the sensitivity of Western economies to the price of oil, the oil and gas industry represents particularly tempting target, where a single terrorist incident could have a huge ripple effect† (Armstrong 2004). The damage would be heightened by today’s just-in-time logistics systems. Companies reduced inventories and capital structures, made possible by international outsourcing and trade, would cause an almost immediate shortage of some goods (Armstrong 2004). This would be compounded if multiple attacks were to occur on vulnerable shipping conduits simultaneously. Terrorists could also hijack ships and make them into floating bombs, which in addition to closing a shipping lane could be deployed against ports, oil refineries, or other critical infrastructures (Anon 2004). Last year in Singapore, supposed pirates hijacked a chemical tanker in the Malacca Straights, and then abandoned the ship after only an hour, fuelling speculation that terrorists were practising for a just such an attack (Anon 2004). This could cause severe damage, also with global impact in the case of a major port of oil refinery, in addition to having a potential devastating environmental impact on the targeted area. The threats â€Å"posed by the environmental impact of a deliberate tanker spill or a gas or chemical tanker being used as a floating bombard sobering yet very real scenarios (Crawford 2004, 9). Case Study: The Malacca Straights The Malacca Straights will be considered in this case study in inspire-December 26, 2004 condition. The channel was devastated by the earthquake and Tsunamis in the region. Several thousand navigational aids have shifted out of position, and at least two deep areas of the channel have filled in dramatically, with one previously over 1,000metres deep now only thirty metres (Bangs erg 2005). Old wrecks were also shifted and joined by ships downed by the waves, which will all need to be charged, and possibly moved or salvaged. London’s International Maritime Organisation is partnering with the United States to re-chart the area and plan for any needed channel modifications, with complete re-charting and dredging where necessary expected to last at least a year (Bangs erg 2005). The Malacca Strait is to the south and west of Singapore and Malaysia, north of Indonesia. It is a narrow channel, approximately 900kilometres long; at one point it narrows to less than two kilometres wide. (Anon 2005, Anon 2004). Over twenty-five present of total world trade, half of the global oil transport, and nearly two-thirds of the international supply of liquefied natural gas pass through the Straight(Loft and Koran 2004). Last year the Straight recorded over 62,000passages, including 3,300 crude oil tankers and 3,280 natural gas carriers (Hand 2004). Other freighters carry a variety of deadly substances, such as nuclear waste from Japan headed for European reprocessing facilities. The majority of the raw materials for China’s extensive manufacturing activities and products for its growing economy move through the Straight (Loft and Koran 2004). According to the IMB, the Strait of Malacca is the most dangerous shipping passage in the world (Hand 2004). The Strait is â€Å"almost entirely made up of territorial waters belonging to the three littoral states† (Hand 2004). This has been a historical point of collapse in addressing piracy in the region, as only recently have these three countries been able to coordinate activities to address shipping safety. In addition, while Malaysia and Singapore are better of financially than Indonesia, none of the countries has the full range of resources needed to confront the problem (Anon 2004). The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has been unable to promote cooperation and a common strategy to deal with piracy in the area, and Indonesia and Malaysia have strongly rejected offers from the United States to dispatch the US Navy to patrol the area (Halloran 2003, Anon2004, Lewis, L. 2004). Of the three countries, Indonesia has done the least to fight piracy. However, it is not surprising that in such an economically disadvantaged country piracy is far down on its list of priorities. â€Å"The vast majority of shipping it is being asked to protect provides noneconomic benefit for the country† (Hand 2004, 5). In addition, Indonesia has faced significant political turmoil. The simultaneous political and economic crises have left the country unable to address piracy adequately, even if it wanted to (Armstrong 2004). The Indonesian Navy was dispatched to combat piracy near Singapore at that country’s insistence, but in the long-term â€Å"Indonesia lacks both the resources and the political will to maintain security across the entire length of the strait; it is a poor country with deep economic and political problems† (Hand 2004). The Indonesian navy is nearly bankrupt and has, at best estimate, perhaps twenty seaworthy boats appropriate for use on patrol. With these resources they attempt to guard the waters surrounding nearly 17,000 islands (Anon 2004). Singapore and Indonesia attempted to work bilaterally on the problem in the 1990s, but coordination disintegrated (Chalk 1998). Malaysia has been more aggressive in addressing piracy. Pre-Tsunami, the government even planned to enhance security with a24-hour radar system covering its areas in the Straight (Anon 2005a). The IMB credits Malaysian vigilant policing and anti-piracy activities as directly leading to the drop in piracy at the western end of the Straight. In 2000, seventy-five attacks were reported in that area, but by 2002 the number had dropped to sixteen (Halloran 2003). Unfortunately this number was tempered by increased attacks in the eastern areas of the Straight, such as the area above the impoverished Indonesian Port Clang, where the sea lanes initially widen (Anon 2004). Following this success, Singapore joined with Malaysia to launch anoint offensive. Seventeen ships were dispatched by the two countries to hunt pirates and terrorists in the Malacca Straight. The countries-ordinated patrols, allowing suspect ships to be pursued across national sea boundaries (Lewis, L. 2004). This led to a further decrease in pirate activity throughout the Straight. However the Indonesian waters of the Straight continue to report the highest number of pirate attacks globally, although the number has dropped from 121 in 2003 to 93 in 2004 (Anon 2005b). Thesis more than twenty-five present of pirate activity worldwide (Anon2005b). Indonesians had recently joined with Malaysia and Singapore,pre-Tsunami, to address piracy. The countries have agreed to allow each other’s policing and patrol ships to pursue suspected pirates and terrorists into each other’s waters (Lewis, L. 2004). While each country remains responsible for its own section of the Straight, any reported pirate or terrorist activity will be immediately reported to cooperating the other countries, allowing for multi-national response where needed (Lewis, L. 2004). Armstrong (2004) points out that increases in piracy typically follow economic crises, and â€Å"flourish in a political / security vacuum†(7). â€Å"The growth in incidents in the Malacca Strait, for example, follows the Asian economic crisis of the late 1990s† (Armstrong 2004,7). Ideologically, the Muslim religion remains prominent in the region. This has encouraged Muslim extremists to establish bases near the Straight, from which they attack ships for political or economic gain (Kokand 2004). The recent natural disasters in the region have only intensified economic and political problems. It is therefore unlikely that the Straight will remain pirate-free once the Tsunami effects on the shipping lanes are dealt with, unless the economic and political instabilities of the region, particularly in Indonesia, are addressed. Case Study: Nigeria The high seas and territorial waters off the coast of Nigeria are another hotbed of pirate and terrorist activity. The country is on the western coast of Africa, bordered to the north and west by Benin and Cameroon, and to the south by the Gulf of Guinea (Nigeria 2005). The river Niger flows through Nigeria to its delta in the gulf. The county is Africa’s most populous, but the vast majority of Nigerians live at below-poverty levels, surviving through subsistence farming (Anon2004b). Petroleum and petroleum products account for ninety-five present of the nation’s exports, making departing tankers a prime target for pirates and terrorist groups (Nigeria 2005). The Nigerian government has been going through massive changes. Constitution was enacted in 1999 following sixteen years of corrupt and poorly managed military rule (Nigeria 2005). Agricultural productivity has plummeted, causing what was once one of Africa’s leading agricultural producers to import food supplies. The economy has been allowed to become over-reliant on petroleum, without the creation of diverse economic interests or investment in infrastructure (Nigeria2005). Nigeria is home to over 250 ethnic people groups, leading to religious and ethnic dissention within the country (Nigeria 2005). While not having as high an incidence of strikes as the Malacca Straight, attacks in the region are significantly more violent (Clark2004). In the first half of 2004, Nigeria had thirteen attacks, compared with fif

Governments Responsibility on the Environment

Governments Responsibility on the Environment Our modern days market system is has put so much attention on its profits that it seems to have forgotten its social responsibility. Because of the increased production by the different markets and their attempt to keep with the competition, the environment has been very much affected. There are many stories in the newspapers and the news about global warming and other environmental hazards which have been as a result of the increased market productions; a good example is the much talked BP oil spill in the deep waters. This not only a show that the market is not careful while producing but it also shows that it has no much concern on the environment. This is where the government should come in. It is thus true that the todays government has a role to play in regulating and managing the environment we live in because the market system tends to ignore the environmental fallouts that have resulted in global warming issues. This is because the environment is like a public good which might not belong top someone specifically but is consumed equally by everybody. Unless there is a strong unity within the firms, then the environment will continue to disintegrate each day because each firm will concentrate on maximizing profits at the expense of the environment leading even to more global warming. Kevin Michael Rudd, is the current prime minister in Australia. He is also a leader of his party. According to him, climate change is the greatest moral, economic and social challenge of our time.† His intention is cut emission of green house gases by 60% before the year 2050. he signed the Kyoto Protocol immediately after being sworn in as Prime Minister. In December of the year 2008, he released a paper, commonly known as a â€Å"White Paper† which talked a bout reducing Australias greenhouse gas emissions. The paper talked about putting up an emission trading scheme in the year 2010 but this has been delayed to be put up in the year 2011 probably because of the much criticism that it encountered. The emission trading scheme is also the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme and it estimated that the emission of green house gases would be less by a level between 5% and 15% in 2020 below the year 2000. Although Rudds government was not able to start an emission trading scheme as planned, it is trying to prove that it can meet its greenhouse gas reduction targets by rushing new energy efficient strategies. According to the Prime Minister, the government has made up its mind to extend the implementation of this scheme up to the year 2012. Despite of this delay, the Prime Minister insisted on the governments commitment to this scheme. He however brought an impression that if there was slowness in international action, the scheme could either be delayed further or even abandoned. His spokes person said that the government would make the emissions trading scheme part of the legislation by 2013 if the international action is sufficient by then. This matter has brought a lot of debate within the Australian government. There is a ministerial task group which will report in June on the options which include new industrial and building efficiency measures and an energy efficiency trading scheme. There are also fuel efficiency regulations and funding for clean coal and solar projects but these are likely to be pre-elections announcements to make it look as if the government is still much committed to dealing with climate change and is also able to meet the reduction aim that it has made an international pledge to. There are however fears that the fight against global warming will have an economic effect on many things. First, it is believe that it is likely that there will be more tax on everything. This will lead to increases in the price of meeting the countrys new policies on the environment. This is also considered that it could lead to the sending of a disastrous indication to the waving international climate talks. The country will have to pay a carbon price in order to meet its target. The public is not ready to pay more to deal with global warming. The concern of the public comes in because it is likely that when the carbon price is introduced to the market, it will be passed to the consumers through high prices for the products. Despite of this, the majority percentage of the entire population are willing to pay a higher price for power in order to achieve this. The high prices in products could lead to cost push inflation within the country. The government is also likely to spend a lot of money in implementing these policies. This is likely to have a negative effect on economic growth as the changes will bring with them high costs. The high costs will lead to a less production lowering the GDP. In terms of unemployment, it is true that it will rise as a way of saving on costs by the firms. All these parameters might only be affected in the short run but take a turn in the long term after the initial costs for the entire projects have been met. This means that a positive change is likely to be seen in the future after the implementation. What is important though is the fact that the emission of green house gases will go down leading to a cleaner and safer environment. References Gan, A, King, S, Stonecash, R Mankin, N, 2009, Principles of economics, 4th edn, Cengage Learning Jackson, J McIver, R 2007, Macroeconomics, 8th edn, McGraw Hill www.csiro.au/resources/pfnt.html